From electricity grid to broadband Internet: Sustainable and innovative power solutions for rural connectivity2023
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
Foreword
Executive summary
1 Background
2 Introduction
3 Status of broadband access in rural areas
     3.1 Urbanization – migration of the population from rural areas
     3.2 Infrastructure in rural areas
     3.3 Urban-rural gap in Internet access – the offline population in developing countries
     3.4 Achieving universal connectivity
     3.5 Rural broadband infrastructure
          3.5.1 Wireless access networks
          3.5.2 Mobile cellular coverage
          3.5.3 Rural broadband access infrastructure
          3.5.4 Mobile cellular networks
          3.5.5 Future 5G networks – innovative services
          3.5.6 Low-earth orbit satellite technologies – underserved rural areas
          3.5.7 High-altitude platform systems
          3.5.8 Renewable energy solution for 5G base stations
4 Lack of access to electricity
     4.1 Energy challenges limiting broadband expansion
     4.2 Sustainable energy for all
     4.3 Rural power deficit in developing countries
     4.4 Transition to a renewable energy infrastructure
     4.5 Improving energy efficiency – optimizing consumption
5 Renewable energy sources for rural electrification
     5.1 Renewable energy more competitive than fossil fuel sources
     5.2 Solar power
          5.2.1 Solar technology overview
          5.2.2 Solar array arrangements
     5.3 Considerations for sizing solar PV arrays
          5.3.1 Solar inverters – voltage converters
          5.3.2 Advantage of solar over diesel-generators
     5.4 Wind power
     5.5 Fuel cells
     5.6 Biomass
     5.7 Micro-hydropower
     5.8 Comparison of renewable energy sources – summary
     5.9 Off-grid renewable energy
          5.9.1 Mini-grids
          5.9.2 Standalone systems
          5.9.3 Comparison of renewable and fossil fuel sources for mini-grid applications
     5.10 Basic components of a mini-grid installation:
     5.11 Solar-powered rural broadband network – Hopscotch Scotland
     5.12 Hybrid power systems
          5.12.1 Hybrid AC mini-grid
          5.12.2 Hybrid DC mini-grid system
     5.13 Hybrid solar and diesel generation
     5.14 Solar PV diesel-generator
     5.15 Storage solutions
          5.15.1 Lead-acid batteries
          5.15.2 Lithium batteries
          5.15.3 Flow batteries
          5.15.4 Flywheels
          5.15.5 Solid-state batteries
          5.15.6 Supercapacitors
     5.16 Wireless power transmission
          5.16.1 Power access using wireless power transmission via radio frequency beam
          5.16.2 Power access using wireless power transmission with other technologies
6 Financial mechanisms for renewable energy investments
     6.1 Financing rural renewable energy infrastructure
     6.2 Universal service funds
     6.3 External financing
          6.3.1 Sale of carbon
          6.3.2 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
          6.3.3 Africa Carbon Credit Exchange (ACCE)
          6.3.4 Carbon Trading Exchange (CTX)
          6.3.5 African Renewable Energy Fund (AREF)
          6.3.6 Power Africa, Beyond the Grid
          6.3.7 Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa (SEFA)
          6.3.8 OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID)
          6.3.9 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
          6.3.10 Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP)
          6.3.11 Department for International Development (DFID) Impact Fund, United Kingdom
          6.3.12 Sustainable Energy for Economic Development (SEED)
          6.3.13 Renewable Energy Performance Platform (REPP)
          6.3.14 Summary of the categories of the funding options
          6.3.15 Broadband infrastructure financing to minimize risks for private investors
          6.3.16 Telecommunication and energy working together for sustainable development
7 Policy mechanisms and recommendations
     7.1 Introduction
     7.2 Digital policies
     7.3 Digital policy considerations
     7.4 Mini-grid operational policy recommendations
     7.5 Specific off-grid policies
8 Conclusion
9 Annexes and case studies
     9.1 Energy service companies
     9.2 Typical financial, contractual and operating solutions
     9.3 Smart Green Communities
          9.3.1 The Smart Communities
          9.3.2 Business model
          9.3.3 Key services
          9.3.4 Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
     9.4 Useful links:
Acronyms
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